Iran And The Iranian Hostage Crisis - 1097 Words

In 1979, the Iranian hostage crisis would occur; this event would damage and sever ties between Iran and the United States for years to come. Over the years, Iran would have hard-line leaders that would only further isolate themselves from western powers and more specifically the US. It would be another 30 plus years before Iran would seek out the US and have a conversation between the two countries; leading to what might be a possible change in policy for a country that has been isolated from the international stage. Iran’s presidential election in June 2013 was won by Hassan Rouhani and led to him taking over for the hard-liner Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. President Rouhani has been known to cooperate with the West, specifically when he was†¦show more content†¦Former President Ahmadinejad set Iran back years by putting Iran into extreme isolation from the international community. His continued badgering with the international community, eventually lead to a nuclear stand-off with world powers. With what seems to be the Ayatollah’s blessing, President Rouhani has so far shown promise to ease the country’s relations and assume a solution on the nuclear issue. â€Å"For Washington, meanwhile, the election offered stark confirmation that its strategy is working, at least to a point. The outcome confirmed that political will for a nuclear deal exists within the Islamic Republic. In other words, the path out of isolation and economic crisis is perilous, but Iran’s new pr esident, who has sometimes been dubbed â€Å"the sheikh of diplomacy,† may just be the right man at the right moment to walk it.† (Maloney, 2013) If President Rouhani can bring his country out of sanctions, resume oil exports and trade, they can become a functioning country again. Although, there is a slim chance that Iran doesn’t continue to support terrorist organizations and continue nuclear enrichment in some capacity. As long as President Rouhani remains president, it is expected that he will do as much as possible to continue to further his country and bring them out of isolation with the world and specifically the west. The following eventShow MoreRelatedThe Iranian Hostage Crisis Of Iran1940 Words   |  8 Pageswas presented with a situation unlike any before: they received word that their embassy in Tehran, Iran, had been overtaken and all members of the embassy save six were being held hostage by Iranian revolutionaries. The road leading to this climactic period in American and Iranian history led back to almost thirty years of growing anti-American resentment. The Shah and the Supreme Ayatollah of Iran were at odds, creating a power struggle unlike any seen in modern history. The interaction of WesternRead MoreKen Pollack Of The Brookings Institution1637 Words   |  7 Pagesand Iran would necessarily be in conflict. In fact during the Shah’s era, before 1979- recognizing that there were all kinds of other problems- the Unites States and Iran worked together splendidly at the strategic level† ( qtd. in Addis). Initially, the United States and Iran maintained amicable relations bu t resentment rose in Iran over time toward the Americans. The Iran-contra with the United States lasted for more than a century, conflict beginning in the late 1800s until 1980. The Iran HostageRead MoreThe Effects of the Iranian Hostage Crisis1117 Words   |  5 Pages The Iranian hostage crisis was one of the most dramatic events in a series of problems that took place during President Jimmy Carter’s term. The crisis, beginning in November of 1979, received the most coverage of any major event since World War II. It was one of many problems faced in light of the United State’s complex relationship with Iran. The effects on both the US and Iran were astronomical, especially politically as well as economically and socially. It took a heavy toll on American relationsRead MoreJimmy Carter and the Iranian Hostage Crisis Essay1297 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican citizens during the Iranian Hostage Crisis of 1979. The political unrest that led to the Iranian Hostage Crisis of 1979 began the previous year when Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi’s rule turned into a near dictatorship. He used a secret police force called SAVAK to control anyone who opposed him and ensure that he stayed in power (â€Å"Iran-U.S. Hostage Crisis†). Because of the tense political situation, the U.S. military began airlifting its citizens that wanted to leave Iran out of the country to GermanyRead MoreThe Iran Hostage Crisis Changed The Political Connections Between The United States And Iran1586 Words   |  7 PagesThe Iran Hostage Crisis The Iran Hostage Crisis changed the political connections between the United States and Iran for several years to come. The Iran Hostage Crisis became a symbol of America s global power and influence On November 4, 1979, Iranian students stormed the US embassy in Tehran, Iran, and took sixty-three Americans hostage. The students agreed that the hostages would not be released until the Shah returned to â€Å"Iran to stand trial for the crimes committed against the Iranian peopleRead MoreHenry Hallaway. World History Ii. Mr. Oto. 28 April 2017.1551 Words   |  7 PagesApril 2017 Rough Draft The Iranian Hostage Crisis was an event that took place in the capital of Iran in November of 1979 that lasted a long four-hundred and forty-four days. What led up to the breaking point in the Hostage crisis happened fast and was a result of a bad tie between the people and government of Iran and the US’ involvement with Iran. During the crisis the US’ president Jimmy Carter had the military attempt rescues of the hostages. The Iranian Hostage crisis did not only cause tensionsRead MoreTaken Hostage967 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Iranian Hostage Crisis The relationship between the American people and their government drastically changed in the 1970s. The people began to distrust their government after The Watergate Scandal, oil prices, and the falling economy. President Jimmy Carter, elected in 1976 was seen by the public as an honest man that was working for the people not for the evils of Washington DC. Carter, being an outsider, grew very popular with the American people. His lack of insider perspective became troublesomeRead MoreThe Hope Of A Nation1728 Words   |  7 Pagesof millions of people to flee their countries in hope of one. Iran is no different, and in the late 20th century, the hope of a better life became an Iranians main goal. During the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the United States opened their arms to a huge increase of immigrating Iranians mainly because of the presence of Iranian students and long standing relationship with Iran. However, everything changed when the hostage crisis of 1980 took place, and the reception that the immigrants once hadRead MoreIranian Hostage Crisis 1617 Words   |  7 Pagesseveral thousand down to less than 100 (Bowden, 2006, p. 19). The U. S. Marines stationed at the embassy were given orders not to shoot, but they could and did use tear gas. When the staff realized what was going on, several had already been taken hostage and they retreated to the second floor secure room and third floor vault in the Chancery. There they continued to destroy sensitive documents and dispose of weapons fearing what the students may do if they find them. When the staff in the embassyRead MoreThe Iranian Hostage Crisis And America s First Encounter With Radical Islam1288 Words   |  6 Pagestowards the impact of the rise of radical Islam tends to contradict the claim of the widespread selï ¬ shness amongst the American people. The Iranian hostage crisis, which lasted for four hundred and forty days, from 1979 to 1981, was a defining moment in the history of Unite d States and Iran’s relations. David Farber, in his book, Taken Hostage: The Iran Hostage Crisis and America s First Encounter with Radical Islam, narrates a detailed account of this relations in five insightful chapters. He concentrates

Comparing Heroes and Villains in Measure for Measure,...

Comparing Heroes and Villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet According to John Steinbeck, Heroes are innocent; villains are cunning. This statement likely regards the internal aspects of characters, such as intellect, reasoning/motivation, and morality/responsibility, as indicated by consistency in action and/or articulation, as in direct speech or soliloquy. An examination of the heroes and villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet can determine whether Steinbecks generalization is applicable. Although Measure for Measure is not a tragedy by standard conventions, Angelo can be considered a tragic hero since he falls because of his hamartia, hubris. While he fits into Steinbecks generalization of†¦show more content†¦Thus Angelo is not innocent, but rather, guilty of hypocrisy, dishonesty, and wrath. Just as Angelo is not a typical hero, the Duke does not obviously appear the villain of the play, yet he is certainly cunning. Although his motivation for promoting Angelo over Escalus is not clear initially, the Duke creates the scenario to test Angelo, and to use him to improve morality in Vienna. The Duke may set up Angelo to fall because he knows Angelo broke his marriage contract with Mariana, as indicated in his soliloquy of lines 261-82 in act III scene ii, and by Marianas familiarity with him: Here comes a man of comfort, whose advice/Hath often stilld my brawling discontent (9-10, IV.i). In disguising himself as a friar, the Duke gains access to private information, as characters speak uninhibitedly in their confessions and opinions of the Duke. For example, Lucio slanders the Duke to the friar, calling him A very superficial, ignorant, unweighing fellow (139-40, III.ii). Furthermore, to resolve Isabellas predicament, the Duke initiates the bed trick (Ken Tompkins, Shakespea re class), binding Angelo simultaneously to his contract with Mariana, and his promise to free Claudio. This may be dramatic convenience for Shakespeare, but it could also be evidence that the Duke has manipulated all of these characters in a plot against Angelo. The consistency of the Dukes scheming nature is further established when he tests

Preferred Stock and Common Stock Free Essays

29) All of the following features may be characteristic of preferred stock EXCEPT A) callable. B) no maturity date. C) tax-deductible dividends. We will write a custom essay sample on Preferred Stock and Common Stock or any similar topic only for you Order Now D) convertible. Answer: c If a firm has class A and class B common stock outstanding, it means that A) each class receives a different dividend. B) the par value of each class is different. C) the dividend paid to one of the classes is tax deductible by the corporation. D) one of the classes is probably non-voting stock. Answer: D 33) Julian is considering purchasing the stock of Pepsi Cola because he really loves the taste of Pepsi. What should Julian be willing to pay for Pepsi today if it is expected to pay a $2 dividend in one year and he expects dividends to growth at 5 percent indefinitely? Julian requires a 12 percent return to make this investment. A) $28. 57 B) $29. 33 C) $31. 43 D) $43. 14 Answer: A Nico Custom Cycles’ common stock currently pays no dividends. The company plans to begin paying dividends beginning 3 years from today. The first dividend will be $3. 0 and dividends will grow at 5 percent per year thereafter. Given a required return of 15 percent, what would you pay for the stock today? A) $25. 33 B) $18. 73 C) $29. 86 D) $20. 72 Jia’s Fashions recently paid a $2 annual dividend. The company is projecting that its dividends will grow by 20 percent next year, 12 percent annually for the two years after that, and then at 6 percent annually thereafter. Based on this information, h ow much should Jia’s Fashions common stock sell for today if her required return is 10. 5%? A) $54. 90 B) $60. 80 C) $66. 60 D) $69. 30 Answer: C How to cite Preferred Stock and Common Stock, Essay examples

Four Goals of Psychology free essay sample

These specific goals are used when psychologists plan and conduct their study (Wood et al. , 2010). Prediction comes into play once description and explanation have been achieved and psychologists can predict the outcome. Prediction is being able to predict an individual’s behavior or choices, once the environment or conditions are understood. Being able to understand the concept psychologists can then predict when the event will happen and know the outcome, most likely. It’s as if a psychologist was seeing a patient who wants to stops drinking but can’t. First the psychologist would observe the patient in order to be able to describe the situation and understand it. Then he would explain to the patient what conditions he is under that don’t let the patient stop drinking. The prediction would be that whenever the patient is around alcohol he would be tempted to drink, especially if the environment was full of other individuals drinking. We will write a custom essay sample on Four Goals of Psychology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He would predict that if the following weekend the patient was to stay home and see no alcohol, the patient would not drink. With prediction the psychologist helps the patient make better choices and tell him the outcomes of him being in a certain environment under certain circumstances. It can then help the patient in his situation and if he applies the prediction he will influence the outcome and can have his desired outcome. With the four goals of psychology studies can be improved and outcomes for individual can be achieved. Prediction will help analyze the situation into a better desired outcome.

The song Hurt Essay Example For Students

The song Hurt Essay The song, Hurt is based on internal conflicts within a person, regret, and experiences with her loved one, which will lead to conflicts and regret. The author has given the signals of these thematic features by the word choice and the general tone. The lyrics are shaped by the thoughts of the character, which is facing difficult emotional situations because of the past decisions that she made; which is leading to face herself and make new decisions under the reflection of her experiences. The speaker in the song is having internal conflicts because of the decisions made in her past and their reflection in her current life. It can be seen that she questions herself: Would you tell me I was wrong, would you help me understand, are you looking down upon me, are you proud of who I am? . The character has been hurt, she also acknowledges the hurt of other person as well and she tries to delude herself by trying to feel the asset of the person she lost by asking questions with the awareness of she will not get an answer. We will write a custom essay on The song Hurt specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now She is constantly using would, in terms of her longing and the things which she wants to do by shaping them with undertaking statements. She is responsible and aware of her apathy against the other side, as we can see in: Ive hurt myself by hurting you and she is looking for another chance to turn back in time because of her depressed mood and internal conflicts, as can be seen in: Some days I feel broke inside. Her tries are being seen by her internal conflicts and her past, reflecting on her present decisions. Hurt has a tone of regret, and how it effects the acts and emotional acceptations and expectations of the character. This feeling of regret is shown with the word would being repeated, and it can be seen in I would hold you in my arms, I would take the pain away The song contains many verbs with past tenses which are showing the things she was not able to do and this puts her under a passive composition. The song is named as Hurt and this is making transmissions to the characteristics leading into flaws and regret. Blaming and being sorry is being repeated in the song and these are showing the contrast between past and present. She is also trying to turn back in time and this is the concrete evidence of her regretting her acts towards the person she is misses today. The character in the song is getting out with a message for herself by the effect of her current state of mind. These are letting her seek through the future and they are drawing a path back to her memories. We can see her past and what choices she made in You told me how proud you were, but I walked away. If only I knew, what I know today Her past is the reason of her regretting and it is wrapping her up with conflicts and they are acting upon her decisions and the situation that she is in today. The character is kind of getting effected by flashbacks and her yesterday. The general motifs of missing and regret are effecting what she is aiming; wishing today and this can be seen from the tone of the author. In the song, the character is going through a period in her life, where she faces herself because of her past decisions leading into regrets and she is able to make new judgments with the awareness of her experiences. Listeners witness the mood of the speaker of the song with the help of thematic features which reflect the melancholic state that she is in.

The French Expression àCause de (Because of)

The French Expression ' Cause de' ('Because of') cause de,  pronounced ah koz deu, is a French prepositional phrase that means because of or due to. Depending on whether the context is negative or positive, it can also be translated as: on account of, owing to or for the sake of. With Blame Essentially, cause de blames someone or something for a negative situation or event, as in:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Jai oublià © mes clà ©s cause de lappel de Philippe.   I forgot my keys because of/on account of Philippes phone call.  Ã‚  Ã‚  A cause de la mauvaise à ©conomie, jai perdu mon emploi.   Due to / owing to  the bad economy, I lost my job. Without the Blame A cause de can also be used for a neutral situation or event, something that deserves neither blame nor credit, as in:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je lai pardonnà © cause de son à ¢ge.   I forgave him considering his age.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Il va venir la fà ªte cause de toi.   Hes going to come to the party for your sake. With Cest To say its because of/due to ... use cest in front of cause de, as in:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Cest cause de cette dà ©cision que nous nous sommes disputà ©s.   Its due to that decision that we argued. Remember the Contraction Remember that de followed by the definite article le or les must contract:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Jai paniquà © cause du bruit.   I panicked because of the noise.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Il est parti cause des enfants.   He left because of the children. An Antonym To give credit for something positive, use the expression grà ¢ce   (thanks to), as in: Grà ¢ce ton assistance, il a fini le travail.   Thanks to your help, he finished the work.Grà ¢ce aux conseils de Pierre, nous avons trouvà © la maison parfaite.   Thanks to Pierres advice, we found the perfect house.  Sil a rà ©ussi lexamen, cest grà ¢ce toi.   If he passed the test, its all thanks to you. Additional Resources Expressions with Expressions with deMost common French phrases

Answer the question given by the professor Essay

Answer the question given by the professor - Essay Example She is a major character of the short story, because she is the key element of resistance-to-change algorithm. Emily became a victim of her father’s ambitions, her noble origin and public opinion of Jefferson dwellers, which destroyed her aspiration to making family with Homer Barron. She hid in her father’s home from the large world as a snail and lived among old memories and with dead body of her beloved. 2. The first-person narrator describes an occurrence in A&P to the target audience. This is a sarcastic and inexperienced teenager, who does not pick words to describe appearance of three girls and his dreams about Queenie. For example, he pays attention to her dangling bra straps and other details, which Sammy uses to guess her surroundings. Sammy’s omniscience is limited, although he gives a detailed description of atmosphere in the supermarket using metaphors and stereotypes of the consumer-conditioned society such as â€Å"sheep† and â€Å"housesla ves†. Teenager’s superiority above his colleagues and consumers is ironical. Sammy is short of life experience, that’s why he compares Lengel with Sunday-school-superintendent. When he quitted from A&P, he was hardly thinking about the future and disappointment of his parents. His quit was not a thoughtful act and would never be estimated at its true worth by Queenie. Sammy is the major character of the story, because he describes, analyzes and indirectly participates in the plot development. He is sarcastic and self-confident and does not respect his colleagues properly. For example, he tries on Stokesie’s family life and career to himself and ignores his own disadvantageous social position. Sammy’s detailed analysis of Queenie’s suit, regal walk, imperative gestures allows to understand he is dissatisfied with his work at A&P and secretly strives for better life. Sexual power of Queenie and her friends disturbs balance among male employees of the supermarket. There is a hidden social conflict of upper- and lower-middle class, limited life opportunities and how do they impact the main character’s behavior. 3. In the centre of â€Å"A Rose for Emily† there is a conflict between highly dynamic society and the main character. Using Emily Grierson as an example William Faulkner shows how public opinion and non-acceptance of social changes by a person may alter one’s life. The story starts from Emily’s funeral and, thus, the author is allowed to judge her actions independently. Emily Grierson belonged to local gentry of Jefferson and her future seemed to be prosperous. She was properly educated and moved only in high circle. Her family lived in a big house and was rich according to local standards. At the same time, Faulkner gives few small hints of uncertainty. When the authorities came to Miss Grierson as to paying taxes, they saw that leather of leather-covered furniture cracked, everything wa s covered with thick layer of dust. â€Å"People in our town, remembering how old lady Wyatt, her great-aunt, had gone completely crazy at last, believed that the Griersons held themselves a little too high for what they really were† (Faulkner 81). In the conflict with administration of Jefferson Emily behaved dryly and formally. She had never considered herself an ordinary member of town community, but an individual. She was proud and

Should Trees Have Standing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Should Trees Have Standing - Essay Example Taking trees for that matter, as they are living creatures with biological properties, the debate now arises whether or not they have legal or moral rights. In my view, trees do have a legal as well as a moral standing, and their due rights should be protected, however, if humans cut trees for sustenance and not for pleasure, such an act shouldn`t be challenged in any case, as giving the rights is one thing but sacrificing one`s own rights for the sake of nature is another. The presumption can be backed by the works of Stone and Schmitz, both being highly reputable professors of philosophy. Stone here regards that trees, like corporations, should be assigned their due rights. Though trees can`t speak for themselves, so can`t the corporations, thus by virtue of law, trees should be protected from abusive behavior. Similarly, Schmitz talks about social egalitarianism in this regard and argues that it is irrational to presume that all species have equal moral standing as that is to be j udged by the self respect principal, i.e. though killing trees without a reason is highly immoral but killing trees for self-survival is completely understandable and doesn’t challenge the ethics and morality for that matter. To defend the legal status of the trees, the propositions from the Stone`s works can be analyzed and studied. He gives the example of a stream which is often quoted in such instances as it gives the most relevant explanation for the legal rights which ought to be presumed by nature. He proposes three basic requirements for the plaintiffs to sue the violators of the stream. When a company sued the industry for polluting the stream, the legal standing was given for the protection on the stream because, firstly, there was a holder to sue the industry, secondly, there must be a competent someone to bear the standing, and thirdly, there must be someone benefitting from the economic compensations. In this regard, the common law would deny any kinds of rights f or the natural objects, even trees, on the grounds that trees can`t sue anyone themselves, nor can they reap the financial compensations, thus there is no point in giving them any kinds of rights (Stone and Hardin 2002). However, Stone argues that same is the case with corporations, i.e. corporations are also dead entities, not even living beings like trees, and however they do have a legal status. In this sense, similar to the corporations, whenever anyone would sue the violators destroying the trees, the benefits would still be reaped by the trees and not by the plaintiffs. Thus, trees in any case deserve a legal standing whatsoever, similar to that of humans, as if the corporations can have a standing, so can the trees. Speaking of the moral rights of the trees, the concept can be explained by the principal of social egalitarianism, which regards all species as equal to humans, thus being not inferior or superior in any case. The proponents of social egalitarianism argue that his torically when the races were being denied the moral rights, i.e. slaves, blacks etc being considered as inferior, thus once modernization eliminated the discrimination, shouldn’t the same be applied on nature too? The advocates of egalitarianism regard trees as having rights similar to that of humans, thus trees should have a high moral standing in the social spectrum, thus, and it would be

The Internet and International Communication Essay

The Internet and International Communication - Essay Example Digital divide is also a barrier, in which internet inaccessibility poses a problem in convergence. Network convergence works on the basis of information flow for the purpose of decreasing the variance among the views and beliefs of the participants involved. Among a nation, these participants are the nation-states or ethnic groups. â€Å"†¦variance between groups or national cultures would become smaller over time as a result of international communication† (Barnett & Kincaid, as cited in author_last_name, p.159). When information flow is efficient and repetitive, network convergence will be able to unite the participants, and as a result, all the participants will achieve the same national identity due to decreased or even diminished variance among them. Yes, I believe so because universal culture will promote a universal set of accepted beliefs, values and standards. This will lead to lower variance and difference of opinions and perspectives among people of all nations. People will start accepting each other, and no one will consider the other persona as an

Criticisms of Utilitarianism

Criticisms of Utilitarianism Essentially, utilitarianism holds that the correct course of action is that which will create the greatest level of happiness. Bentham called this the greatest happiness principle or the greatest felicity principle. He wrote the greatest happiness of all those whose interests are in question, as being right and proper, and only right and proper and universally desirable, end of human action. Utilitarians seek an empirical basis for morality through the measurement of happiness. The question that a utilitarian will ask himself is will this, of all possible actions, contribute most to the general happiness? Happiness is seen as the only thing that is good in itself and unhappiness the only thing that is bad in itself. Utilitarianism has broadly been categorised as either act utilitarianism, which is the form upon which Bentham founded his hypotheses and rule utilitarianism, which was developed by John Stuart Mill. Act utilitarianism envisages that the best course of action in any given situation is the act that will result in the greatest utility (i.e. the greatest benefit). Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, holds that the correct course of action is that which follows the general rule which gives rise to the greatest utility. So, for example, it might be justifiable in terms of act utilitarianism for a group of friends to rob a person and share the money between themselves, but if this was to be the rule applied in every such situation then the effect on society as a whole would be such as to outweigh any happiness created by the act. CRITICISMS OF UTILITARIANISM Intuitively speaking, utilitarianism appears to be an extremely attractive philosophy. It offers a simplicity that many other philosophical approaches lack and in particular cuts through the mish mash of moral rules favoured by deontological thinkers. It is reconcilable with the majoritarianism favoured by democratic systems of government. Moreover, utilitarianism offers an obvious answer to the question of why we should act in a certain way in the absence of a religious justification. Despite this, the theory has attracted copious criticism. On a practical level, utilitarianism has been derided as unworkable, and even absurd. It has been argued that there is no adequate means of defining happiness, nor any suitable method for quantifying levels of happiness. Even if the theory can be made to work on a practical level, others argue, the results are morally wrong. Others object to the reduction of the human experience to the pursuit of pleasure. The various criticisms are too numerous and intricate to discuss in detail here and as such I will confine my discussion to two criticisms that are particularly prevalent in philosophical literature: the first relating to practical problems in applying the utilitarian concept and the second dealing with concerns arising from the results of utilitarian analysis. (1) Impossibility the untenability of the felicific calculus One of the most obvious problems with utilitarianism is that happiness, which lies at the heart of the theory, is an abstract concept. How can we hope to measure a quality that exists only in our minds? Furthermore, if we cannot measure happiness, how can we tell the effects that an action will have on the amount of happiness within a society? Bentham proposed a mathematical formula for calculating how an action will affect levels of happiness, which he called the felicific calculus, or utility calculus. In Chapter 4 of An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham sets out his formula in detail. In spite of this attempt at mathematisation, it is clear, as Smart points out, that the weighing of consequences seems more often a matter of vague intuition than of scientific calculation. The felicific calculus cannot really account for different degrees of happiness nor of the fact that different people are made happy by different things, and to different degrees. It cannot scan the minds of the population and know for certain what will increase their happiness. It is often impossible to predict even what the consequences of an action will be, so any attempt to predict the effects on happiness are presumably equally unfeasible. For example, a utilitarian might argue that, if it were possible to travel back in time, then it would be entirely permissible to murder Hitler in order to prevent the deaths of millions of people. However, it is impossible for us to know what the results of this would have been. Perhaps an even more wicked dictator would win power in his place and this could result in the suffering and death of twice as many people. Based on this difficulty, Bernard Williams, among others, ridicules the felicific calculus as absurd. He argues that utilitarians would be trapped in an eternal process of calculation in an effort to determine every tiny consequence of their actions. One utilitarian response to this accusation is that utilitarian calculations should be carried out subject to reasonable limits. If the calculation procedure was left to rattle on ad infinitum then it in itself would become too costly and would itself outweigh the benefits to be derived from the calculation. Allison said that utilitarians should adopt the summary rules approach taken by Rawls in A Theory of Justice. A pragmatic approach seems reasonable. J S Mill argued that, although the calculations were crucial, they have already been carried out in the whole past duration of the human species and have now come to form part of our moral rules. Therefore, we do not require to sit calculating the outcome of every action before we make it. Of course, to some extent it will be possible to tell instinctively what will result in the greatest happiness. Unfortunately, this does rather undermine the empirical approach that utilitarians seem to be aiming for. In any event, the felicific calculus is unconvincing as a tool of genuine usefulness and even modern utilitarians appear to have come to reject it. (2) Conflict with the concept of individual rights Utilitarianism, as has previously been remarked upon, is primarily concerned with the interests of the majority of the community. This is anathema to those who support the concept of individual rights as paramount. Dworkin, for example, believed that rights are trumps that overwhelm all other moral considerations. Although he noted the apparent egalitarian and impartial nature of utilitarianism, and acknowledged that utilitarian argument not only respects, but embodies, the right of each citizen to be treated as the equal of any other he goes on to point out that this was deceptive and could easily lead to the infringement of individual rights. He gives the example of how racial segregation might be justified under the happiness principle on the basis that segregation might be of benefit to a white law student as it would protect his interests even though a minority would suffer. Dworkin neatly summarises his position when he writes If someone has a right to do something then it is wrong for the government to try to deny it to him even though it would be in the general interest to do so. It has been argued that the consequentialist nature of theory means that all manner of rights violations and atrocities might be justified by utilitarian analysis. If the end justifies the means then, to give a topical example, is it acceptable to torture a terrorist in order to obtain information as to the whereabouts of a bomb? Is it acceptable to torture his family to pressurise the terrorist into talking? If the torture results in the finding of a bomb, which is then defused, saving many lives, then the utilitarian position would presumably support the torture in both cases. Rights-based theorists, on the other hand, would consider torture to be a violation of the terrorists rights that could never be justified. Moreover, at an instinctive level the average person would be revolted at the thought of torture, if not of the terrorist then certainly of the terrorists family. It is difficult to see how utilitarianism can be reconciled with human instinct in such circumstances. A rule-utilitarian would seek to circumvent this problem by arguing that torture, if applied as a general rule, would have such a detrimental effect on society that its use cannot be justified under the greatest happiness principle. Torture in a single situation might be justified, but the fear and shame that would arise in the community at large as a result of a widely used policy of torture would outweigh the immediate benefit in this situation. John Stuart Mill also argued that there was utilitarian value in the protection of rights, since this would increase overall happiness. This is a compelling argument. The act-utilitarian, however, would seemingly be bound to accept the torture as morally legitimate. What, then, of large-scale atrocities? It could be argued that a consequentialist approach has been used to justify many of the worlds worst crimes against humanity. Smart concedes that, under a strict utilitarian analysis, it would be justifiable to cause suffering and death to a large number of people on the grounds that an even larger number would ultimately benefit. However, he points out that it would be necessary in utilitarian terms to be very sure that the future generation would benefit and, since it would almost certainly be impossible to be so certain of the future, utilitarianism would not in fact sanction the atrocity. Moreover, he says, even if we could predict the future with absolute certainty, the chance that a large-scale atrocity would result in a benefit of sufficient scale to outweigh the horror it causes is so remote that utilitarians would almost certainly condemn the atrocity. Unfortunately, this defensive argument serves to re-iterate one of the criticisms previously alluded to allude: namely, the difficulties inherent in predicting the consequences of ones actions. By admitting that we cannot predict the outcome of, for example, genocide, Smart leaves utilitarian theory open to the accusation that there are many actions for which we cannot predict the outcome, which would suggest that it is too risky to ever take any action at all. Smart confesses that a utilitarian may have to confess doubt and ignorance is of course in accordance with his empirical attitude, however this seems to be passing the buck somewhat given the staunchly empirical tradition that underlies utilitarianism. CONCLUSION The classical conception of utilitarianism as presented by its early adherents is certainly flawed and, with such keystone concepts as the felicific calculus having been undermined, it might appear that utilitarianism as a philosophical position is otiose. Moreover, it is difficult to see where utilitarianism can sit comfortably within our contemporary culture of individual rights and freedoms. Modern utilitarians, however, continue to argue their corner. Raymond Frey, also quoted by Allison, argues that utilitarianism has never ceased to occupy a central place in moral theorising [and] has come to have a significant impact on the thinking of many laymen. The actions of governments, both in this country and abroad, in response to a perceived increase in the threat of terrorism is arguably testimony to extent to which utilitarianism influences current political thinking. Of course, it may be some time before we discover whether these actions are ultimately successful in ter ms of the maximisation of happiness or whether they have the opposite effect.

Essays --

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that each year roughly one in six Americans (48 million people), 128,000 will end up in the hospital and 3,000 will die of foodborne illness. Three hundred and sixty-five million dollars are spent annually on the Salmonella infection. There are 31 major foodborne pathogens that are known to cause foodborne illnesses. Foodborne illnesses are infections of the gastrointestinal tract caused by food that contains harmful bacteria, parasites, viruses or chemicals. The gastrointestinal tract is a serious of organs joined in a long, twisted tube from the mouth to the anus. The most common symptoms are vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever and chills. Some chemicals affect the nervous system causing symptoms such as headache, numbness of the skin, blurring in the vision, weakness of body, dizziness, and paralysis. Most of Foodborne Illnesses happen suddenly and only last a short time, typically lasting one to seven days. A lot of people recover on their own without going to the doctors. But rarely, a foodborne illness may lead to more serious issues to a person such as dehydration, hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), and chronic including reactive arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome or long lasting health problems. However, there are some people who are most likely to develop foodborne illnesses such as infants, children, pregnant women, older adults, and people with weak immune systems. Raw foods of any animal origin such as raw meat and poultry, raw eggs, unpasteurized milk, and raw shellfish are most likely to be contaminated. Fruits and vegetables can also be contaminated if the fields were fertilized with animal waste and if the produce was cleaned with unclean water. Raw ... ...uch. Foods that need to be cooked should be cooked long enough at a high temperature to kill the harmful bacteria that may be on them. For roast, steaks, and chops of beef, veal, pork, and lamb should be cooked at 145 degrees. For ground beef, veal, pork, and lamb should be cooked at a temperature of 160 degrees. Poultry should be cooked at 165 degrees. Foodborne Illnesses can be prevented easily if you know what to look for and how to prevent it. Reducing the number of infections will require stronger actions to prevent food contamination at multiple steps from the farm to the table. If you reduce foodborne illnesses by 10%, you’ll be saving 5 million Americans each year from getting sick. The Arizona Department of Health Services predict that in year 2020, the Salmonella infection will have dropped by 25% and a 25% to 50% drop in the other top five infections.